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A review of the research literature on racial socialization

Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: a review of research and directions for future study. Developmental psychology, 42(5), 747.

The terms racial socialization and ethnic socialization are terms scholars use to describe messages from parents that teach children about ethnicity and race. In this article, the authors discuss what is known about racial and ethnic socialization on the basis of current research, examining studies concerning the nature and frequency of this kinds of socialization want characteristics/experiences of parents and children that predict it. The authors outline 4 different components of racial socialization (teachings about history, heritage and ethnic pride; discussions about discrimination; promoting egalitarian views; and promoting mistrust of other groups. The authors also discuss challenges in the way it has been defined and methods used to study it.  

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Do  parents who experience more frequent discrimination at work report transmitting more frequent racial socialization messages to their children? Is this the same for children of all ages?

Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1(4), 200-214.

This is one of the earlier studies of different types of racial socialization in African American families. Using a sample of 147 parents, it examines whether types of racial socialization are more or less likely among parents who experience different types of discrimination at work.

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Do racial socialization messages adolescents receive correlate with their discrimination experiences and ethnic-racial identity?

Rivas‐Drake, D., Hughes, D., & Way, N. (2009). A preliminary analysis of associations among ethnic–racial socialization, ethnic discrimination, and ethnic identity among urban sixth graders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(3), 558-584.

This study is based on a sample of ethnically diverse early adolescents in New York City who were asked survey questions about the types of racial socialization they received from their parents. It looks at associations between these socialization messages, adolescents’ experiences of discrimination, and their ethnic and racial identities

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Are mothers’ and adolescents’ racial socialization messages correlated with each other and which better predicts adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity?

Hughes, D., Hagelskamp, C., Way, N., & Foust, M. D. (2009). The role of mothers’ and adolescents’ perceptions of ethnic-racial socialization in shaping ethnic-racial identity among early adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(5), 605-626.

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Do experiences of discrimination predict academic and psychological adjustment among diverse youth?

Hughes, D., Del Toro, J., Harding, J. F., Way, N., & Rarick, J. R. (2016). Trajectories of discrimination across adolescence: Associations with academic, psychological, and behavioral outcomes. Child Development, 87(5), 1337-1351.

This study examines how ethnically/racially diverse early adolescents’ experiences with discrimination change between 6th and 11th grade and how these changes are related to academic and psychological adjustment outcomes.

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What goals and strategies underlie parents racial socialization?

This paper is based on in-depth interviews with Black, White, Latinx and Chinese families and describes their racial socialization beleifs, goals and practices. 

Hughes, D., Rivas, D., Foust, M., Hagelskamp, C., Gersick, S., & Way, N. (2008). How to catch a moonbeam: A mixed-methods approach to understanding ethnic socialization processes in ethnically diverse families. Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child, 226-277.

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How are adolescents’ perceptions of discrimination related to their ethnic identity over time?

This study asks how  adolescents perceptions of racial discrimination are related to various aspects of ethnic and racial identity.

Del Toro, J., Hughes, D., & Way, N. (2021). Inter‐Relations Between Ethnic‐Racial Discrimination and Ethnic‐Racial Identity Among Early Adolescents. Child development, 92(1), e106-e125.

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Do discrimination experiences with peers and professors over the course of 4 years of college predict academic and psychological adjustment and graduation rates at the end of 4 years?

Del Toro, J., & Hughes, D. (2020). Trajectories of discrimination across the college years: Associations with academic, psychological, and physical adjustment outcomes. Journal of youth and adolescence, 49(4), 772-789.

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What parenting practices are observed in parents of high achieving Black adolescent boys?

This is a study based on interviews with Black mothers and sons over the course of middle and high school in which we identify the parenting strategies that mothers of high achieving Black boys use.

Francis, T. E., Hughes, D. L., Watford, J. A., & Way, N. (2020). Consistency is key: Understanding academic socialization among high-achieving Black boys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 72, 101181.

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How do moms rank academic excellence, friendships, learning about race, and proper etiquette as childrearing goals. Do Chinese, Black, Dominican, and White moms have different priorities?

In this study, we ask moms to sort cards with different aspects of different areas of socialization and investigated whether moms from different cultural groups ranked them differently.

Harding, J. F., Hughes, D. L., & Way, N. (2017). Racial/ethnic differences in mothers’ socialization goals for their adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(2), 281.

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